{"id":5833,"date":"2023-05-22T16:30:04","date_gmt":"2023-05-22T16:30:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/?page_id=5833"},"modified":"2025-02-05T12:36:40","modified_gmt":"2025-02-05T12:36:40","slug":"bevs-battery-electric-vehicles","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/bevs-battery-electric-vehicles\/","title":{"rendered":"BEVs (Battery electric vehicles)"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"5833\" class=\"elementor elementor-5833\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-75e4be7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"75e4be7\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0e67cf9\" data-id=\"0e67cf9\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-890ab05 elementor-nav-menu__align-justify elementor-widget__width-inherit elementor-hidden-tablet elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-nav-menu--dropdown-tablet elementor-nav-menu__text-align-aside elementor-nav-menu--toggle elementor-nav-menu--burger elementor-widget elementor-widget-nav-menu\" data-id=\"890ab05\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;submenu_icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;&lt;i class=\\&quot;\\&quot; aria-hidden=\\&quot;true\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/i&gt;&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;&quot;},&quot;layout&quot;:&quot;horizontal&quot;,&quot;toggle&quot;:&quot;burger&quot;}\" data-widget_type=\"nav-menu.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<nav aria-label=\"Menu\" class=\"elementor-nav-menu--main elementor-nav-menu__container elementor-nav-menu--layout-horizontal e--pointer-underline e--animation-fade\">\n\t\t\t\t<ul id=\"menu-1-890ab05\" class=\"elementor-nav-menu\"><li class=\"menu-home menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-home menu-item-15\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/\" class=\"elementor-item\">Home<\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-wind menu-wind menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3170\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\">Wind<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-onshore-wind menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-965\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/onshore-wind\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Onshore wind<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-offshore-wind menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-966\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/offshore-wind\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Offshore wind<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-wind-power-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-964\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wind-power-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Wind power theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-solar menu-solar menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3171\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\">Solar<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-967\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Solar PV<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv-plus-storage menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-968\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv-plus-storage\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Solar PV plus storage<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-969\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Solar PV theory<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-csp menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1615\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-csp-thermal\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Solar CSP<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-grids menu-grids menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3172\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\">Grids<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-grid-batteries menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1682\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-batteries\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Grid batteries<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-battery-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1832\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/battery-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Battery theory<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-grid-backup menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-5297\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-backup\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Grid backup<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-green-hydrogen gh menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-2307\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/green-hydrogen\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Green hydrogen<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-fuels menu-fuels menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3174\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\">Fuels<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-green-hydrogen menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-3124\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/green-hydrogen\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Green hydrogen<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-transport menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-5858\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\">Transport<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-bevs menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-5859\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/bevs-battery-electric-vehicles\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">BEVs (Battery electric vehicles)<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8726\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/battery-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\">Battery theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\t\t\t<\/nav>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-menu-toggle\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Menu Toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"presentation\" class=\"elementor-menu-toggle__icon--open eicon-menu-bar\"><\/i><i aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"presentation\" class=\"elementor-menu-toggle__icon--close eicon-close\"><\/i>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<nav class=\"elementor-nav-menu--dropdown elementor-nav-menu__container\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t<ul id=\"menu-2-890ab05\" class=\"elementor-nav-menu\"><li class=\"menu-home menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-home menu-item-15\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/\" class=\"elementor-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Home<\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-wind menu-wind menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3170\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Wind<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-onshore-wind menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-965\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/onshore-wind\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Onshore wind<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-offshore-wind menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-966\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/offshore-wind\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Offshore wind<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-wind-power-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-964\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wind-power-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Wind power theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-solar menu-solar menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3171\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-967\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar PV<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv-plus-storage menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-968\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv-plus-storage\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar PV plus storage<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-969\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar PV theory<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-csp menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1615\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-csp-thermal\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar CSP<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-grids menu-grids menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3172\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Grids<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-grid-batteries menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1682\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-batteries\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Grid batteries<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-battery-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1832\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/battery-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Battery theory<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-grid-backup menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-5297\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-backup\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Grid backup<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-green-hydrogen gh menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-2307\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/green-hydrogen\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Green hydrogen<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-fuels menu-fuels menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3174\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Fuels<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-green-hydrogen menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-3124\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/green-hydrogen\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Green hydrogen<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-transport menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-5858\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Transport<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-bevs menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-5859\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/bevs-battery-electric-vehicles\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">BEVs (Battery electric vehicles)<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8726\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/battery-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Battery theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\t\t\t<\/nav>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f929dc2 elementor-hidden-tablet elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"f929dc2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tesla_3_%2B_Y.jpg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"298\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Tesla_3__Y_cropped-1024x381.jpg\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-5835\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Tesla_3__Y_cropped-1024x381.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Tesla_3__Y_cropped-300x112.jpg 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Tesla_3__Y_cropped-768x286.jpg 768w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Tesla_3__Y_cropped.jpg 1180w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">Tesla model Y 2022 best selling BEV (right), Tesla model 3 (left).  Photo by Wikipedia user Smnt.  CC-BY-SA-4.0<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-106c7c6 elementor-absolute elementor-hidden-tablet elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"106c7c6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_position&quot;:&quot;absolute&quot;}\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">battery electric vehicles<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1e5b1d3 elementor-hidden-desktop elementor-nav-menu--stretch elementor-nav-menu__text-align-center elementor-nav-menu--toggle elementor-nav-menu--burger elementor-widget elementor-widget-nav-menu\" data-id=\"1e5b1d3\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;submenu_icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;&lt;i class=\\&quot;\\&quot; aria-hidden=\\&quot;true\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/i&gt;&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;&quot;},&quot;layout&quot;:&quot;dropdown&quot;,&quot;full_width&quot;:&quot;stretch&quot;,&quot;toggle&quot;:&quot;burger&quot;}\" data-widget_type=\"nav-menu.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-menu-toggle\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Menu Toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"presentation\" class=\"elementor-menu-toggle__icon--open eicon-menu-bar\"><\/i><i aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"presentation\" class=\"elementor-menu-toggle__icon--close eicon-close\"><\/i>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<nav class=\"elementor-nav-menu--dropdown elementor-nav-menu__container\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t<ul id=\"menu-2-1e5b1d3\" class=\"elementor-nav-menu\"><li class=\"menu-home menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-home menu-item-15\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/\" class=\"elementor-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Home<\/a><\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-wind menu-wind menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3170\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Wind<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-onshore-wind menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-965\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/onshore-wind\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Onshore wind<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-offshore-wind menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-966\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/offshore-wind\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Offshore wind<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-wind-power-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-964\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wind-power-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Wind power theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-solar menu-solar menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3171\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-967\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar PV<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv-plus-storage menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-968\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv-plus-storage\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar PV plus storage<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-pv-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-969\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-pv-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar PV theory<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-solar-csp menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1615\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/solar-csp-thermal\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Solar CSP<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-grids menu-grids menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3172\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Grids<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-grid-batteries menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1682\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-batteries\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Grid batteries<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-battery-theory menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-1832\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/battery-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Battery theory<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-grid-backup menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-5297\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-backup\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Grid backup<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-green-hydrogen gh menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-2307\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/green-hydrogen\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Green hydrogen<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-fuels menu-fuels menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-3174\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Fuels<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-green-hydrogen menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-3124\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/green-hydrogen\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Green hydrogen<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"main-menu-transport menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children menu-item-5858\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"elementor-item elementor-item-anchor\" tabindex=\"-1\">Transport<\/a>\n<ul class=\"sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown\">\n\t<li class=\"sub-menu-bevs menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-5859\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/bevs-battery-electric-vehicles\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">BEVs (Battery electric vehicles)<\/a><\/li>\n\t<li class=\"menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-8726\"><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/battery-theory\/\" class=\"elementor-sub-item\" tabindex=\"-1\">Battery theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\t\t\t<\/nav>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f46271a elementor-hidden-desktop elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f46271a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">BEVs (battery electric vehicles)<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-dddf861 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"dddf861\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3b17b9f\" data-id=\"3b17b9f\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-inner-section elementor-element elementor-element-c85e4fc elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"c85e4fc\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-inner-column elementor-element elementor-element-76c5c55\" data-id=\"76c5c55\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-82a1255 elementor-hidden-desktop elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"82a1255\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:&quot;H1&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;No headings were found on this page.&quot;,&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;,&quot;h4&quot;,&quot;h5&quot;,&quot;h6&quot;],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;numbers&quot;,&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tTable of Contents\t\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__82a1255\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-chevron-down\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__82a1255\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-chevron-up\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__82a1255\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<i class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-50ef4da elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"50ef4da\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">General<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ff54699 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ff54699\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Here are the definitions of some common acronyms used in electric vehicles articles:-<\/p><ul><li><strong>BEV<\/strong> (battery electric vehicle):<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\[1pt]<\/span>A pure battery electric vehicle with no other sources of energy, other than the battery.<\/li><li><strong>PHEV<\/strong> (plug-in hybrid electric vehicle):<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\[1pt]<\/span>A vehicle containing a drive chain battery and electric motor, which can be recharged from mains electricity, but which also contains a fossil fuel engine, such as a petrol or diesel engine.\u00a0 Typically the battery size is sufficient to allow some tens of miles using battery power alone, before either recharging or automatically starting the petrol or diesel engine.<\/li><li><strong>PEV<\/strong> (plug-in electric vehicle):<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\[1pt]<\/span>&#8220;PEV&#8221; describes either a BEV or a PHEV.\u00a0 It is a vehicle which can operate on electric drive alone for at least a few tens of miles, prior to recharging<\/li><li><strong>NEV<\/strong> (new energy vehicle):<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\[1pt]<\/span>&#8220;NEV&#8221; is normally used in China to denote a vehicle powered by a source other than a petrol or diesel engine (which were regarded as the &#8220;old&#8221; energy vehicles, common at the end of the 20<sup>th<\/sup> century).\u00a0 It includes BEVs, PHEVs, and HFC vehicles (see below)<\/li><li><strong>HFC<\/strong> (hydrogen fuel cell) vehicle:<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\[1pt]<\/span>A vehicle with an electric motor, powered by hydrogen via a set of hydrogen fuel cells.\u00a0 It typically also includes a small battery.\u00a0 The hydrogen fuel cells are expensive, and normally there are insufficient to provide enough power to allow the vehicle to accelerate at a reasonable rate.\u00a0 So the battery provides additional power to boost the acceleration.\u00a0 The hydrogen fuel cells recharge the battery when the overall power demands are not so great.<\/li><li><strong>ICE<\/strong> (internal combustion engine) vehicle<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\[1pt]<\/span>Usually a fossil fueled vehicle, such as a petrol (US gas) or diesel engine vehicle.\u00a0 The term &#8220;ICE&#8221; can also include vehicles powered by compressed natural gas or other fossil fuel gases.\u00a0 Strictly, it could also include ICE vehicles fueled with green hydrogen or other types of hydrogen, though such vehicles are not common.<\/li><\/ul><p>From one battery charge, BEVs will have ranges from, perhaps, 50 miles (80 km) up to a few hundred miles, perhaps 500 miles (800 km).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-70992b1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"70992b1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"lifecycle-emissions\">Lifecycle emissions<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3116a4a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3116a4a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The lifetime emissions of a BEV when powered by an average US or European grid are considerably lower than for any comparable fossil fuel vehicle.\u00a0 As an example, the average UK fossil fuel car in 2019 had total life cycle emissions that were around <a href=\"https:\/\/www.carbonbrief.org\/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change\/\">3 times higher<\/a> than for a Nissan Leaf with a 40 kWh battery.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-103dbfd elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"103dbfd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"production-emissions\">Production emissions<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-89dfab5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"89dfab5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Apart from the battery, the rest of an electric vehicles generally has similar production CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions to those from a comparable fossil fuel vehicles.\u00a0 Battery production CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions must be added to the emissions from producing the rest of a BEV or PHEV.<\/p><p>Battery production CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions split into:-<\/p><ul><li>emissions from the mining of battery raw materials<\/li><li>emissions from the processing of raw materials into complete battery cells and then battery packs<\/li><\/ul><p>To reduce the CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions from mining requires specifically addressing this issue, and there may be more progress over time.<\/p><p>However, the CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions from the battery production plant reduce automatically as the local electricity supply gets greener.\u00a0 The plant can also specifically contract for electricity with zero operational CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions, and can design the processing to minimise the energy used from processing, and the raw material wastage.<\/p><p>CATL has constructed a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.catl.com\/en\/news\/912.html\">certified zero emissions battery processing plant<\/a> in Yibin, Sichuan Province, China.\u00a0 Local, zero operational CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions, hydroelectric power mainly powers this CATL processing plant.<\/p><p>Typically, production of lithium ion batteries in a net zero emissions processing plant results in total battery pack CO<sub>2<\/sub> emissions of around 60 kg\/kWh from materials mining operations.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cf078f5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cf078f5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"emissions-from-driving\">Emissions from driving<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b48e2b5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b48e2b5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The following table gives an indication of the average CO2 savings per year from a BEV in various regions and countries:-&nbsp;<\/p><span id=\"tablepress-6-description\" class=\"tablepress-table-description tablepress-table-description-id-6\"><center><b>BEV driving emissions by country<\/b><\/center><br><\/span>\n\n<table id=\"tablepress-6\" class=\"tablepress tablepress-id-6\" aria-describedby=\"tablepress-6-description\">\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"row-1\">\n\t<th class=\"column-1\">Region<\/th><th class=\"column-2\">Year<\/th><th class=\"column-3\">Grid<br \/>\nCO<sub>2<\/sub><br \/>\ngm\/kWh<\/th><th class=\"column-4\">Average<br \/>\ndistance<br \/>\nper year<\/th><th class=\"column-5\">BEV<br \/>\nmiles\/kWh<\/th><th class=\"column-6\">New FF <br \/>\navg  CO<sub>2<\/sub><br \/>\ngm\/km<\/th><th class=\"column-7\">CO<sub>2<\/sub><br \/>\nsaving <br \/>\ntonnes\/year<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody class=\"row-striping row-hover\">\n<tr class=\"row-2\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">USA<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">2021<\/td><td class=\"column-3\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.eia.gov\/tools\/faqs\/faq.php?id=74&amp;t=11\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">389<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-4\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.caranddriver.com\/auto-loans\/a32880477\/average-mileage-per-year\/\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">13,500 miles<br \/>\n21,600 km<br \/>\n<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-5\">2.5 to 4.0<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.energy.gov\/eere\/vehicles\/articles\/fotw-1223-january-31-2022-average-carbon-dioxide-emissions-2021-model-year\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">217<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-7\">4.7<br \/>\n&#8211;&nbsp;1.3 to 2.1<br \/>\n= 2.6 to 3.4<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-3\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">UK<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">2023<\/td><td class=\"column-3\"><a href=\"https:\/\/electricinsights.co.uk\/#\/dashboard?period=1-year&amp;start=2023-01-01&amp;&amp;_k=vwqk5d\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">146<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-4\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.caranalytics.co.uk\/guides\/average-car-mileage\/\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">7,500 miles<br \/>\n12,000 km<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-5\">3 to 4.0<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.racfoundation.org\/motoring-faqs\/environment target=\"country\">144-160<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-7\">1.7<br \/>\n&#8211;&nbsp;0.3 to 0.4<br \/>\n= 1.3 to 1.4<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-4\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">EU-27<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">2021<\/td><td class=\"column-3\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/ims\/greenhouse-gas-emission-intensity-of-1\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">280<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-4\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.acea.auto\/fact\/fact-sheet-cars\/\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\"><br \/>\n7,500 miles<br \/>\n12,000 km<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-5\">3 to 4.0<\/td><td class=\"column-6\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/data-and-maps\/indicators\/average-co2-emissions-from-motor-vehicles\/assessment-1\" target=\"country\" rel=\"noopener\">123<\/a><\/td><td class=\"column-7\">1.5<br \/>\n&#8211;&nbsp;0.5 to 0.7<br \/>\n= 0.8 to 1.0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<!-- #tablepress-6 from cache --><p>Within the averages there will be considerable variation in miles driven.&nbsp;<\/p><p>The different USA state and EU country grid have a wide variety of carbon intensities (CO2 gm\/kWh). So the ranges and averages are just an indication. Different BEVs have different efficiencies, usually in the range of 2.5 to 4 miles\/kWh. The USA vehicles tend to be bigger and less efficient.&nbsp;<\/p><p>Here is a 2022 list of EVs and efficiencies in Wh\/mile (rather than miles\/kWh). For a 75 kWh battery with production emissions of 60 kg\/kWh (which means a net zero battery processing plant), the production emissions would be 4.5 tonnes. Thus the CO2 breakeven times between purchasing a BEV with a range of 250-300 miles and buying a pure fossil fuel car are around a couple of years in the USA, 4 years in the UK, and 5 or 6 years in the EU.&nbsp;<\/p><p>These calculations ignore the rapid country grid carbon intensity reductions which will take place in the EU and UK country grids over the next few years, which will bring these breakeven times down.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5acad57 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"5acad57\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"charging\">Charging<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e79b935 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e79b935\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"ac-vs-dc-charging\">AC vs DC charging<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f12b276 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"f12b276\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Charging of EVs can use either AC or DC.<\/p><p>AC charging supplies the local mains AC voltage to the BEV, which uses its own charging circuitry to convert this to the DC voltage required by the battery (typically 400V to 1,000V).\u00a0 A single phase AC mains supply restricts AC charging to 7 kW.\u00a0 But a three phase AC mains supply allows AC charging at up to 11 kW, and sometimes 22 kW .<\/p><p>The simplest method of AC charging uses a lead which plugs into a local domestic socket.\u00a0 The charging AC power is typically 2.3 kW for 230 volt domestic supplies, but sometimes 3 kW.<\/p><p>DC charging always uses a charger external to the EV.\u00a0 \u00a0DC chargers supply the voltage and current required directly by the BEV in its current state of charge, completely under the control of the BEV.\u00a0 The power supplied to the EV battery is a maximum or either the power the external charger can deliver, at the voltage requested by the car, or, if lower, the power the BEV battery can take at its charge state at that point in time.<\/p><p>As of May 2023, External DC chargers installed vary between 60 kW and 350 kW for current light BEVs (cars).\u00a0 Tesla has installed a few 1 MW chargers in the USA so far for Tesla semi class 8 trucks, and has confirmed these can also be used by the forthcoming Tesla Cybertruck..<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9513ad3 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"9513ad3\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"inductive-charging\">Inductive charging<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-805096b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"805096b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As an alternative to plugging in, wireless inductive charging can be used to charge BEVs.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>Inductive charging uses a transmitter wire loop in a pad on the surface, or installed underneath the parking space, and a receiver wire loop on the bottom of the BEV.\u00a0 There must be some means to enable the driver to align the two loops.\u00a0 The two wire loops act as a high frequency transformer to transfer power from the transmitter to the receiver.\u00a0 With suitable electronics at both ends, a V2G (&#8220;vehicle to grid&#8221;) power transfer (the other way) can also take place.<\/p><p>The size of the loops, and the frequency of the AC current in the transmitter loop, limit the power transferred.\u00a0 The development of fast, high power silicon carbide switches enables transfers of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fleetnews.co.uk\/news\/latest-fleet-news\/electric-fleet-news\/2023\/03\/22\/breakthrough-for-high-power-wireless-ev-charging-technology\">up to 500 kW<\/a>, with no more than 1-2% of additional losses due to the wireless induction transfer, when compared to a cable transfer.<\/p><p>As well as the convenience for private BEV charging at home, inductive charging would be very useful for electric taxi ranks and fast intermittent charging of electric buses while stationary at bus stops.<\/p><p>At present only one US EV (<a href=\"https:\/\/evchargingsummit.com\/blog\/everything-you-need-to-know-about-wireless-ev-charging\/\">the BMW 530e hybrid sedan<\/a>) has a manufacturer&#8217;s option for inductive charging.\u00a0 But inductive charging can be fitted by a third party to most BEVs.\u00a0 The transmitter and receiver have to be compatible.<\/p><p>Normally, the inductive charging receiver interfaces to the BEV DC charge socket.\u00a0 For inductive charging via the DC charge socket, the BEV controls the voltage and current of the DC charging process.\u00a0 An AC charging port normally accepts standard mains voltages, and provides only lower power charging.<\/p><p>The above description relates to &#8220;static&#8221; inductive charging, where the BEV is stationary.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>There are also proposals for &#8220;dynamic&#8221; inductive charging of a moving BEV, but it is not clear that there is a big demand for charging moving BEVs.\u00a0 The US state of Michigan has a partnership with Electreon to provide <a href=\"https:\/\/www.michiganbusiness.org\/press-releases\/2021\/09\/whitmer-announces-initiative-nation-leading-wireless-ev-charging-infrastructure-michigan\/\">dynamic (on the move) wireless EV charging on a one mile stretch of road in Detroit<\/a>\u00a0as a trial.<\/p><p>A survey showed that there is <a href=\"https:\/\/evchargingsummit.com\/blog\/everything-you-need-to-know-about-wireless-ev-charging\/\">considerable interest<\/a> in wireless inductive charging in the USA.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4fb8834 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4fb8834\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"smart-charging\">Smart charging<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c231d7e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c231d7e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A BEV with a 300 mile range, and a 30 mile daily round trip commute most likely has\u00a0 a week or so of flexibility in between full charges.\u00a0 Smart charging involves a\u00a0 direct or indirect negotiation between the BEV and the grid to exploit the available charging flexibility to:-<\/p><ul><li>charge the BEV outside peak demand hours to avoid overloading the transmission and distribution grids with EV charging demand<\/li><li>charge the BEV at times of surplus wind and\/or solar power<\/li><li><em>not<\/em> charge the BEV at times when power is scarce, whenever much higher wind and solar output are forecast within the BEV smart charging flexibility window.<\/li><\/ul><p>Most of the smart charging accounts are expected to be with retail energy (electricity) suppliers.<\/p><p>Some electric vehicles may not be able to take full advantage of smart charging at particular times, as follows:-<\/p><ul><li>Many buses, coaches, taxis and trucks may travel on schedules which allow only limited flexibility in charging.\u00a0 There may be flexibility in the hour of charging overnight, but it might be essential that they are fully charged by the start of their working day.<\/li><li>Vehicles, normally having a high degree of flexibility in when to charge, may be scheduled to make long journeys, perhaps immediately, or perhaps on the following day.\u00a0 These vehicles may require a\u00a0 full charge, either as fast as possible, or by a short term deadline.<\/li><li>Vehicles requiring charging on a long journey must usually be fast charged immediately, though not necessarily to 100%.<\/li><\/ul><p>Smart charging apps must allow:-<\/p><ul><li>Specification of a minimum charge level by the start of use on each\u00a0 day (which might be different on weekdays vs weekends).<\/li><li>An immediate charging option<\/li><li>An option for a full charge by a particular deadline<\/li><\/ul><p>Some of these options might be specified in a calendar for the BEV driver, to which smart charging would have access.\u00a0<\/p><p>The biggest benefit of smart charging would be a much lower electricity price during normal, flexible, smart charging.\u00a0 \u00a0Electricity for charging outside the normal smart charging arrangements would cost more, perhaps on a scale which rises with scarcity of net electricity supply (supply less projected load).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3d80fbd elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"3d80fbd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"on-street-charging\">On-street charging<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-847f22f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"847f22f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>One issue is to ensure that shared apartment off-street parking areas can be fitted with the required number of chargers.\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.current.eco\/resources\/articles\/do-people-in-apartment-blocks-need-ev-chargers\">UK and Germany, and many other countries have laws<\/a> which ensure new and refurbished buildings, with more than a certain number of parking spaces, have to have one or more bays fitted with a charger.\u00a0 Such laws don&#8217;t address the number of drivers with no off street parking, but, at least, ensure that private chargers can be installed in suitable existing locations.<\/p><p>EVs can often be parked on a public street, immediately outside the owner&#8217;s house or flat.\u00a0 There is no clear answer as to whether these can be charged via cables over public walkways (pavements\/sidewalks), from sockets in the owner&#8217;s home.\u00a0 In most places, it is not legal to string a long extension cable to the car, which passes over public land.\u00a0 There are technical solutions to avoiding trip issues, such as cutting a thin channel to feed a cable, which can be shaped to avoid a trip hazard.\u00a0\u00a0For many, there is no guarantee they can park immediately outside their home, on a public street.\u00a0 Perhaps a consensus, or new technology, will emerge on this issue.<\/p><p>Statistics for the limited number of countries covered below show that 20% or less of eventual BEV drivers will have to rely mainly on street or other public charging locations while resident at home.<\/p><p><strong>United States<\/strong><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pwc.com\/us\/en\/industries\/industrial-products\/library\/electric-vehicles-charging-infrastructure.html\">PWC cites<\/a> a US DoE estimate that up to 80 to 90% of BEVs will normally be charged overnight at home or at work.\u00a0 I can&#8217;t find the source DoE document.\u00a0 These vehicles will sometimes need fast charging at road services on long journeys, or need charging at a destination.<\/p><p>The ICCT (International Council on Clean Transportation) July 2021 report <a href=\"https:\/\/theicct.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/charging-up-america-jul2021.pdf\">Charging up America [Fig 5]<\/a> 2030 estimate is that 69% of electricity US EV charging will be supplied through off street chargers at home (59%) or at work (12%).\u00a0 Thus 29% must be supplied by public charging, of which 20% will be supplied through public fast chargers and 9% through public level 2 chargers (5 kW to 7 kW).\u00a0 The implication in the report is that the 2030 figures would represent the situation when all US vehicles are electric, but it is not explicitly stated.<\/p><p>If 10%+ of charging is through fast chargers, by BEVs which are more normally charged off street at home or work, then the percentages are consistent with the US DoE estimates above.<\/p><p>Ensuring that chargers can be fitted in shared parking for apartments and condominiums may be an issue in the USA, as a legal right to charging at shared private parking may have to be established in each US state individually.<\/p><p><strong>England (UK)<\/strong><\/p><p>Roughly 20-25% of UK drivers would not be able to charge off street at home or at work.\u00a0 The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistical-data-sets\/amenities-services-and-local-environments\">English Housing Survey Data [DA2201]<\/a> shows 67% of English <em><strong>homes<\/strong> <\/em>have either a garage (35%) or other off-road parking (32%).\u00a0<\/p><p>Car owners will tend to choose homes with off street parking.\u00a0 The majority of those who do not own a car will tend to live in flats\/apartments in the large cities with good public transport.\u00a0 The implication is that significantly more than 67% of eventual BEV <em><strong>drivers<\/strong><\/em> will have off street parking at home on which a\u00a0 private charger can be installed.<\/p><p>PWC stated elsewhere (I can&#8217;t find the reference now) that around 10% of drivers who could not charge privately at home would be able to charge privately at work.<\/p><p>MotaClarity (a website for disabled drivers) has various suggestions as to how to charge a BEV parked on the street outside the owner&#8217;s house on its web page &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.motaclarity.co.uk\/news\/how-do-people-with-no-driveway-charge-an-electric-car\">How Do People With No Driveway Charge An Electric Vehicle?&#8221;<\/a>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ec6eb8d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ec6eb8d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"efficiency\">Efficiency<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-071934c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"071934c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A BEV has high efficiency, of up to 85-90%, compared to <a style=\"font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight ); background-color: #ffffff;\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuel_efficiency#:~:text=Passenger%20car%20diesel%20engines%20have,gallon%20for%20an%20efficient%20turbodiesel.\">fossil fuel engine engine efficiencies<\/a> in the range of 20 to 37% for petrol and 30-41% for diesel.<\/p><p>BEV efficiency comes from the combination of the following:-<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\\u00a0\\\\<\/span><\/p><ul><li>Electric motors can achieve efficiencies well in excess of 90% for a wide range of operating conditions and above 95% for normal operation at a steady BEV speed.\u00a0 See &#8220;<a href=\"#electric-motor-efficiency\">Electric motor efficiency<\/a>&#8221; below.<\/li><li>BEV batteries can have a round trip efficiency (energy out vs energy in) of over 90%.\u00a0 BEVs battery efficiency is highest if a BEV is slow charged (usually via AC, rather than DC), and the maximum state of charge is no more than 80%, unless preparing for a long trip.\u00a0 See &#8220;<a href=\"\/wp\/battery-theory#efficiency\">Efficiency&#8221;<\/a> in the &#8220;Battery theory&#8221; web page.<\/li><li>BEVs usually have regenerative braking, converting the kinetic energy of motion back to electrical power, which is sent back to the battery, whenever the driver presses the brake pedal.\u00a0 Provided braking is not emergency hard braking (using brake pads and discs), 60% of more of the kinetic energy of motion can be recovered<\/li><li>BEVs tend to be specifically designed to achieve as low a weight as possible and as high an efficiency as possible.\u00a0 As an example, some BEVs now use heat pumps for heating the interior, which is three times as efficient as electric resistance heating.<\/li><\/ul><p>The characteristics above translate into a typical efficiency for electric cars in the range of 3 to 4 miles\/kWh (4.8 to 6.4 km\/kWh).\u00a0 In the USA, some private vehicles are much bigger and heavier. These bigger, heavier vehicles might achieve only 2.5 miles\/kWh (4 km\/kWh), and sometimes even less.<\/p><p>Here is a link to the <a href=\"https:\/\/ev-database.org\/uk\/compare\/efficiency-electric-vehicle-most-efficient\">ev-database list<\/a> which contains a figure for EV efficiency, expressed as Wh\/mile.\u00a0 Divide 1,000 by the Wh\/mile figure to translate into miles\/kWh.\u00a0 To get km\/kWh multiply the result by x1.6.<\/p><p>Note that the ev-database list likely contains official efficiency and range figures result from standardised testing.\u00a0 These will not represent the efficiency and range obtainable on a specific journey, under specific driving conditions (such as when heating or air conditioning is active), nor representing the driving style of a particular driver.\u00a0 So they should be treated as indications only.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ceef9e7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ceef9e7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"electric-motor-efficiency\">Electric motor efficiency<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c93ab65 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c93ab65\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">An example of an electric motor efficiency chart is below, for the <\/span><a style=\"font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight ); background-color: #ffffff;\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cascadiamotion.com\/images\/catalog\/remy-pds---hvh250-115-sheet-euro-pr-3-16.pdf\">BorgWarner HVH250-115 SOM electric motor<\/a><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">.\u00a0 The <\/span><a style=\"font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight ); background-color: #ffffff;\" href=\"#performance\">performance<\/a><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\"> section below includes t<\/span><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">he torque and power charts for this motor<\/span><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">.<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\\u00a0\\\\<\/span><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/cdn.borgwarner.com\/docs\/default-source\/event-downloads\/iaa-cars\/borgwarner-hvh250-115.pdf\"><img decoding=\"async\" style=\"border: 3px solid black;\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomEfficiencyCharacteristics.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"766\" height=\"611\" \/><\/a><br \/><span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\ \\\\<\/span><\/p><p>Note the large area of operating characteristics (various shade of red but not orange) in which the motor will operate at over 90% efficiency, and a significant area in which it achieves 95% efficiency.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e1d1e17 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e1d1e17\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"performance\">Performance<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e45ec66 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e45ec66\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Electric vehicles have an inbuilt performance advantage over fossil fuel vehicles.\u00a0 An electric motor delivers maximum torque from zero revs upwards, dropping only as the applied voltage is not high enough to fully overcome the back EMF (electromagnetic force = back voltage of the motor opposing the applied voltage as a result of the speed at which it is spinning).<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cascadiamotion.com\/images\/catalog\/remy-pds---hvh250-115-sheet-euro-pr-3-16.pdf\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-6114 size-full\" style=\"border: 3px solid black;\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomTorqueVsSpeedCurve.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1267\" height=\"847\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomTorqueVsSpeedCurve.png 1267w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomTorqueVsSpeedCurve-300x201.png 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomTorqueVsSpeedCurve-1024x685.png 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomTorqueVsSpeedCurve-768x513.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1267px) 100vw, 1267px\" \/><\/a><\/p><center><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cascadiamotion.com\/images\/catalog\/remy-pds---hvh250-115-sheet-euro-pr-3-16.pdf\">BorgWarner HVH250-115 SOM electric motor torque vs RPM curve<\/a><\/center><p>SOM refers to the fact the electric motor is single wound.\u00a0 Dual wound electric motors can run at more than one speed when fed with AC power at a fixed frequency (such as 50 Hz or 60 Hz).<\/p><p>The torque is almost constant until the elbow in the curves.\u00a0 The maximum RPM for the flat torque region depends on the driving voltage, dictated by the battery voltage.<\/p><p>The descending curves on the right of the elbow of the torque curve are a result of the fixed battery voltage limit.\u00a0 The motor always acts as a generator to produce a voltage\u00a0 (back EMF as above) dependent on the motor speed.\u00a0 After a certain motor speed, the battery does not have enough voltage to be able to push maximum current through the motor, so the torque drops, and the power produced by the motor is no longer proportional to the speed of the motor, as in the curves on the following chart.<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomPowerVsRPMCurve.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-6123\" style=\"border: 3px solid black;\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomPowerVsRPMCurve.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"945\" height=\"642\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomPowerVsRPMCurve.png 945w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomPowerVsRPMCurve-300x204.png 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorBorgWarnerHVH240-115SomPowerVsRPMCurve-768x522.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 945px) 100vw, 945px\" \/><\/a><\/p><center><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cascadiamotion.com\/images\/catalog\/remy-pds---hvh250-115-sheet-euro-pr-3-16.pdf\">BorgWarner HVH250-115 SOM electric motor power vs RPM curve<\/a><\/center><center><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cascadiamotion.com\/images\/catalog\/remy-pds---hvh250-115-sheet-euro-pr-3-16.pdf\"> (same battery voltage colour key as the chart above)<\/a><\/center><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>Torque determines acceleration.<\/p><p>ICE (internal combustion engine) vehicles don&#8217;t develop maximum torque until the motor has reached a few thousand RPM.\u00a0 Thus a fossil fuel vehicle needs gears (either automatic or manual).<\/p><p>The chart below, from <a href=\"https:\/\/monceau-automobiles.com\/blog\/why-an-electric-motor\">Monceaux Automobiles<\/a> (who convert classic Mercedes to electric drive), shows the torque from ICE vehicles vs BEVs of a similar maximum power.<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/monceau-automobiles.com\/blog\/why-an-electric-motor\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-6157 size-full\" style=\"border: 3px solid black;\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorVsICETorqueVsRPSCurves.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1106\" height=\"697\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorVsICETorqueVsRPSCurves.png 1106w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorVsICETorqueVsRPSCurves-300x189.png 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorVsICETorqueVsRPSCurves-1024x645.png 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/ElectricMotorVsICETorqueVsRPSCurves-768x484.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1106px) 100vw, 1106px\" \/><\/a><br \/>You can see that a BEV with a lower maximum power electric motor is likely to out-accelerate a fossil fuel car with a higher maximum power engine.\u00a0 Hence my lowly 2015 Nissan Leaf beats almost any fossil fuel car, short of a supercar, away from the front row of the traffic lights in London.\u00a0 My 80 kW Leaf seems to be 40 yards ahead before a fossil fuel car starts to develop any significant torque, without exceeding any speed limit.<\/p><p>However, if both vehicles are doing 40 mph and suddenly accelerate, a fossil fuel car with a higher maximum power than my Leaf will always reach 60 mph first, as the torque from the Leaf electric motor will not exceed the fossil fuel engine at any point between those two speeds.<\/p><p>Any Tesla will leave both cars standing, however.\u00a0 The Tesla model S Plaid variant is the fastest production electric car and can do 0-60 mph in 1.99 seconds.\u00a0 That is, it accelerates faster (1.37 g) on the road than its vertical acceleration if you <a href=\"https:\/\/edition.cnn.com\/2023\/01\/03\/us\/tesla-crash-cliff-california-cec\/index.html\">drive it off a 250 foot vertical cliff<\/a> (0-60 mph in 2.7 seconds, terminal vertical velocity 86 mph).\u00a0 The man who drove off the cliff in a Tesla model Y, miraculously, survived with severe bruising, as did his wife and two children who were also in the car.\u00a0 Do not try this at home.<\/p><p>The technical way to beat an electric car from a standing start with a higher powered petrol or diesel car would be to disengage the clutch, wind the engine up to the revs for maximum torque, then to slip the clutch when the lights change.\u00a0 Doing this frequently is not recommended.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9c2d016 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"9c2d016\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"bev-tyre-and-brake-pad-wear\">BEV tyre and brake pad wear<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1178aa1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"1178aa1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>BEVs tend to be a little heavier than comparable fossil fuel vehicles.\u00a0 You would thus expect faster tyre wear, a shorter tyre lifetime, and higher particulate emissions from the tyre wear.<\/p><p>However, BEVs almost invariably have good traction control, giving smooth acceleration and little chance of locking the wheels during braking.\u00a0 Both of these help to reduce tyre wear.<\/p><p>Moreover, most tyre makers, such as Goodyear, make some\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/goodyear-introduces-goodyear-electricdrive-2-with-elevated-performance-capability-and-sustainable-materials-302029785.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">tyres which are specific to BEVs<\/a>.\u00a0 They use harder wearing compounds and are more rigid, which reduces flexion and gives a lower rolling resistance, thus improving efficiency.\u00a0 This leads to improved tyre lifetime for BEVs.<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.kwik-fit.com\/blog\/electric-car-tyre-wear#\">Kwik Fit (tyre fitting specialists),<\/a> who should probably be regarded as the subject matter experts, a BEV-specific tyre fitted to a BEV has a 30% longer mileage lifetime than a conventional tyre fitted to a comparable fossil fuel vehicle.<\/p><p>BEV-specific tyres are more expensive than conventional tyres, so should provide improved performance in some areas.<\/p><p>As a result, BEVs with BEV-specific tyres are going to cause lower particulate emissions than comparable fossil fuelled cars with conventional tyres &#8211; somewhat of a surprise, perhaps.<\/p><p>BEVs use regenerative braking.\u00a0 This uses the BEV motor(s) to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in the moving BEV.\u00a0 The electricity is\u00a0 stored back in the battery.<\/p><p>The implication is that the BEV brake pads only need to come into contact with the braking discs during hard or emergency braking.\u00a0 Brake pads are thus expected to last the lifetime of the BEV.<\/p><p>Because of the reduced BEV brake pad wear, the particulate emissions from BEV brake pads will be very considerably less than those from conventional braking in comparable fossil fuelled vehicles.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-dbc4dca elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"dbc4dca\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"battery-types-&amp;-lifetimes\">Battery types &amp; lifetimes<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b5a8e1c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b5a8e1c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>See the &#8220;<a href=\"\/wp\/battery-theory\">Battery theory<\/a>&#8221; web page, and &#8220;<a href=\"\/wp\/battery-theory#lifetime-and-cycles\">Lifetime and cycles<\/a>&#8221; within that, for the different types of battery which are suitable for BEVs and the individual characteristics of these battery types.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-684c882 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"684c882\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"electricity-supply\">Electricity supply<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b6ae2a2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b6ae2a2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Click on the following image to obtain an interactive map of the world from Our World in Data which can be used to obtain the 2021 or 2022 grid carbon intensity of most countries.<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/grapher\/carbon-intensity-electricity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-6029\" style=\"border: 3px solid black;\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/WorldGridCarbonEmissionsIntensity2022.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1057\" height=\"676\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/WorldGridCarbonEmissionsIntensity2022.png 1057w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/WorldGridCarbonEmissionsIntensity2022-300x192.png 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/WorldGridCarbonEmissionsIntensity2022-1024x655.png 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/WorldGridCarbonEmissionsIntensity2022-768x491.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1057px) 100vw, 1057px\" \/><\/a><\/p><p>Most grids are getting greener year by year, mostly due to the installation each year of new wind and solar farm, increasing the proportion of zero carbon electricity.\u00a0 New wind and solar farms reduce the carbon intensity (CO<sub>2<\/sub> gm\/kWh) on the grid as a whole.<\/p><p>There is some confusion about EV charging in a grid where gas generation does not always have to be active to provide balancing and reliability services.\u00a0 Some argue that it means that gas plants always provide EV charging, because gas always provides for a marginal increase in load.\u00a0 However, you could also argue that gas plants provide immediate power for any load which has just been switched on.\u00a0 Meanwhile, how do you allocate an increase (quite often now, very rapid) in wind and solar generation over time?<\/p><p>And as the penetration of wind and solar (plus nuclear and biomass) in a grid increases towards 100%, the argument surely falls apart.\u00a0 Provided there is no requirement to have fossil fuel generation active for grid stability reasons, there will be increasing times when gas (or coal) generation is no longer active at all.\u00a0 The UK National Grid ESO (electricity system operator) has projects finishing in 2025 to ensure the UK grid can be entirely reliable and stable with no gas or coal plants active whenever the output from wind and solar (with or without nuclear) is sufficient to meet demand.<\/p><p>A more logical way of looking at it, which does not fall apart towards 100% renewables grid penetration, is to assume the published average grid emissions intensity for defined periods (usually 10, 30, 60 minutes) is the result of all active loads during the period.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>So the carbon intensity of the electricity used to charge a BEV should be regarded as identical to the carbon intensity of grid electricity averaged over the duration of charging.\u00a0 The average should take into account the charging power if it varies during a DC fast charging session.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ca71d09 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ca71d09\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"bev-synergy-with-wind-&amp;-solar\">BEV synergy with wind &amp; solar<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-04030d8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"04030d8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The majority of charging for personal electric vehicles is likely to be smart charging.\u00a0 If most BEVs have a range of 300 miles, and an average 30 mile round trip daily commute, then there is at least a week of flexibility in when they need to be smart charged.\u00a0 Thus charging can be scheduled mainly when there is net surplus wind and solar power i.e. when wind and solar power available exceeds inflexible demand plus losses.<\/p><p>Heat pump heating systems or air conditioning systems with some insulated thermal storage (such as a tank of water or phase change material of 1 cubic metre or more) also introduce flexibility into the supply of power for heating or cooling loads.\u00a0 However, the flexibililty for heating or cooling is likely to be no more than a day, compared to a week or so for EV smart charging.<\/p><p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">Thus, there is no necessity to provide smoothing of short-duration gaps in wind and solar for the proportion of demand which relates to smart charging or heating\/cooling with thermal storage.\u00a0 <\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">The total battery capacity in electric vehicles which are being smart charged will ultimately be much bigger than the capacity of grid batteries installed on a grid, perhaps by a factor of x6 to x8.\u00a0 See the &#8220;Grid storage battery&#8221; page, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/grid-batteries#2050-short-duration-storage\">2050 short duration storage<\/a>&#8221; section.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\"> For grids which already have a high penetration of wind and solar supply, more wind and solar can be installed cheaply if it is primarily to support additional BEV charging and heating\/cooling loads with thermal storage.\u00a0 However, flexibility in when to charge BEVs, or heat homes, does not necessarily reduce the required capacity of long-duration grid backup.\u00a0 Long duration grid backup includes generation from green hydrogen or natural gas, and would fill <\/span><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">gaps in wind and solar output ranging from one day up to a few weeks.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">Thus, the inbuild storage in BEVs and the provision of thermal storage in some heat pump systems makes it more straightforward and cheaper to install wind and solar power to higher levels of penetration of grid supply.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d478a1f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"d478a1f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"costs\">Costs<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-83a2c31 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"83a2c31\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>With the exception of the battery, the rest of a BEV should be cheaper to manufacture than a comparable fossil fuel car.\u00a0<\/p><p>An electric motor is simpler, lighter, cheaper and far more efficient than an internal combustion engine.<\/p><p>At the moment, BEVs are more expensive than comparable fossil fuel cars, due to the cost of the battery pack.\u00a0 Battery pack prices have been coming down steadily, but raw material costs rose in 2022 to cause a rare increase in battery prices as shown in the chart from Parkers below.\u00a0 The chart uses data from BNEF.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7f3dec6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"7f3dec6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.parkers.co.uk\/electric-cars\/cost-to-change-ev-battery\/\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"534\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ev-batt-prices-parkers_from_bnef2-1024x683.jpg\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-6683\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ev-batt-prices-parkers_from_bnef2-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ev-batt-prices-parkers_from_bnef2-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ev-batt-prices-parkers_from_bnef2-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ev-batt-prices-parkers_from_bnef2.jpg 1200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a5e9417 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a5e9417\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.visualcapitalist.com\/electric-vehicle-battery-prices-fall\/\">According to a 2021 Visual Capitalist article<\/a>, the Wright&#8217;s Law &#8220;learnings rate&#8221; for batteries results in battery prices reducing by 28% for each doubling in overall capacity delivered.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>Specifically, the colourful Venture Capitalist graphic in the linked article above was claiming that a 350 mile range BEV would be at the same sticker price as the Toyota Camry in 2023.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>However, due to the rising cost of battery raw materials and other factors, it hasn&#8217;t quite happened like that.\u00a0 The common expectation is that sticker prices of BEVs will reach parity with those of comparable fossil fuel cars around 2025 or 2026.<\/p><p>Let us compare cars from Tesla, the leading BEV maker, and Toyota, the leading fossil fuel\/hybrid car maker.<\/p><p>In the USA, with the IRA (inflation reduction act) tax concessions, as of January 2023,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.torquenews.com\/14335\/teslas-are-now-cheaper-toyotas-why-they-are-cheaper\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">according to TorqueNews<\/a>, the cheapest US Tesla model 3 was $44,000 before a \u00a37,500 IRA tax discount.\u00a0 The minimum cost Toyota Camry started at $26,000.\u00a0 As of January 2023, the Tesla was still considerably more expensive, both before and after tax breaks.\u00a0 But Tesla prices have reduced somewhat since January,\u00a0 and the model 3 before the tax break is down to $42,240.\u00a0 It is thus moving in the right direction.<\/p><p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">Further, the Camry costs quite a bit more to refuel, depending on which country you are in and the tax on fuel, whereas electricity in the US is cheaper.\u00a0 The difference between fuelling and charging costs might make a difference of $7,000 over 8 years of use, but the Tesla model 3 is still $7,000 more expensive over 8 years of overall costs.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight );\">Depreciation is currently similar for both cars, but by 2026, fossil fuel cars may be losing considerably more value as they will be known to be on the way out as old technology.<\/span><\/p><p><a href=\"\/wp\/battery-theory#sodium-ion\">Sodium ion batteries<\/a> for low end BEVs should make the difference by 2026.\u00a0 Sodium ion battery cells may be closer to $40\/kWh by 2026, compared to an estimate for the current lowest LFP (lithium ion phosphate) battery cell prices (e.g. as paid by Tesla) of $80\/kWh.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>BEV manufacturing techniques are also expected to become more efficient over time, as BEVs are rather simpler to produce, apart from the battery.<\/p><p><a style=\"font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight ); word-spacing: var( --e-global-typography-text-word-spacing ); background-color: #ffffff;\" href=\"https:\/\/www.teslarati.com\/tesla-model-2-production-launch\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Loup Venture analysts<\/a>\u00a0suggest Tesla will officially announce its much vaunted $25,000 &#8220;model 2&#8221; BEV in 2024, for delivery mid 2025 or 2026.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-602c6a4 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"602c6a4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"materials\">Materials<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3c05b7c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3c05b7c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As BEV sales ramp up over time, a few particular materials are seen as key to the BEV transition, as follows:-<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5f17edd elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"5f17edd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"lithium-vs-sodium\">Lithium (vs sodium)<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-353bb97 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"353bb97\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Currently, most BEV batteries require an average of 10kg each of lithium.\u00a0 For up to 100 million new BEVs per year, the total lithium requirement would be 1 million tonnes per year.<\/p><p>2022 lithium metal production and mining was 130,000 tonnes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/centers\/national-minerals-information-center\/lithium-statistics-and-information\">according to the USGS<\/a> (US geological survey).\u00a0 To get to 1 million tonnes per year is an eightfold increase, which is a big demand from the miners.\u00a0 90%+ of vehicle sales may be BEVs by 2030, and an eightfold increase in lithium extraction and processing in just 8 years is huge!<\/p><p>However, as of July 2023, <a href=\"\/wp\/battery-theory#sodium-ion\">sodium ion batteries<\/a> are already in volume production by CATL, with Faradion and others also in volume production later in 2023.\u00a0 Sodium ion batteries will be introduced in some Chinese made BEVs later in 2023.\u00a0 Sodium ion batteries use only cheap and common materials, mainly eliminating battery materials supply problems.\u00a0 Sodium ion batteries are expected to come down to $40\/kWh within a few years &#8211; half the current costs of $80\/kW of LFP (lithium iron phosphate) batteries.<\/p><p>Sodium ion batteries in high volume low end BEV production will reduce the\u00a0 requirement for lithium metal.\u00a0 Lithium ion batteries are lighter, giving better BEV acceleration.\u00a0 But BEV acceleration is excellent anyway.\u00a0 Designers can still provide far better BEV acceleration than a fossil fuel car, even with a heavier sodium ion battery.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>One possible outcome is that lithium continues to be used for high end BEVs for performance reasons.\u00a0 But if not enough lithium can be produced for all BEVs sold in 2030, or if lithium ion batteries remain much more expensive than sodium ion, the bottom end of the market will use sodium ion exclusively.\u00a0 Stationary storage is likely to use sodium ion battery cells anyway, as the extra weight is of no consequence, compared to the lower cost.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e0b947b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e0b947b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"copper-vs-aluminium\">Copper (vs aluminium)<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f7fe8de elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"f7fe8de\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>According to the <a href=\"https:\/\/copper.org\/environment\/sustainable-energy\/electric-vehicles\/#:~:text=An%20EV%20can%20use%20between,between%20183%20and%20814%20pounds.\">Copper Development Association<\/a>, BEVs require between 39 and 83 kg of copper each.\u00a0 Taking an average of 60 kg per BEV, for 100m new BEVs per year, the total requirement would be for 6 million tonnes of copper per year.<\/p><p>According to the USGS, in 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/centers\/national-minerals-information-center\/copper-statistics-and-information\">22 million tonnes of copper were mined and 26 million tonnes were refined<\/a> (including recycled copper).\u00a0 So another 6 million tonnes for EVs represents a 25% uplift.<\/p><p>However, BEVs are not the only green technology users of copper.\u00a0 Wind and solar farms and new underground or undersea transmission lines also use copper extensively.\u00a0 Overground transmission lines generally use aluminium and steel, but not copper.\u00a0 Transformers can use either copper or aluminium.<\/p><p>Aluminium is generally a good substitute for copper.\u00a0 It is slightly less conductive for a given cross sectional area, but lighter.\u00a0 For a given conductor ohmic resistance, a lower weight of aluminium is required, by a factor of 1.6.\u00a0 Aluminium is not suitable for house wiring as it requires specialist terminations to other types of wiring, and amateur DIY (do it yourself) electricians can create fire hazards by not using these correctly.<\/p><p>According to the USGS, annual production of aluminium was <a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/centers\/national-minerals-information-center\/copper-statistics-and-information\">69 million tonnes<\/a> in 2022, while if all BEVs used aluminium instead of copper the BEV requirement would be around 4 million tonnes per year, so BEVs would not be a hugely significant additional demand on aluminium production.\u00a0 Not only can aluminium production readily be extended, but there were also 8 million tonnes of spare production capacity in 2022.<\/p><p>Further, Tesla has announced it will go to 48 V low voltage systems, which reduces the volume and weight of conductor required for low voltage wiring by three quarters compared with 12 V systems.\u00a0 Drive chains can also save conductor metals by going from 400 V to 1000 V.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p><p>One way or another, copper and aluminium combined do not appear to be an obstacle for the required eventual expansion in BEV production to produce 100% of new road vehicles with batteries each year.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4f51474 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4f51474\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"rare-earth-vs-iron-nitride-magnets\">Rare earth (vs iron nitride) magnets<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e438c4d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e438c4d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Permanent magnet motors can be very efficient, but currently depend on rare earths Nd (neodymium), Dy (dysprosium) and Pr (praseodymium) to produce stable permanent magnets with high field strength, which do not lose too much magnetic field strength at their normal operating temperatures.&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>BEV electric motors typically use such rare earth permanent magnets.&nbsp; Rare earth permanent magnets are also used extensively in wind turbine generators.<\/p>\n<p>In 2022, Chinese mines produced 70% of rare earths, including Nd, Dy and Pr.&nbsp; See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/centers\/national-minerals-information-center\/rare-earths-statistics-and-information\">USGS reports for rare earths<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nironmagnetics.com\/\">Niron<\/a> has developed low volume production of nanostructured iron nitride permanent magnets to replace rare earth magnets.&nbsp; Nanostructured iron nitride permanent magnets nominally have a lower magnetic field strength than rare earth magnets.&nbsp; However, in practice, at operating temperatures of motors and generators, iron nitride loses less of its field strength as it warms up, which makes it superior to rare earth magnets.&nbsp; Once in volume production, iron nitride permanent magnets should enable cheaper and stronger permanent magnets, with less dependency on China for magnetic rare earths.&nbsp; Other rare earths have uses in areas other than permanent magnets.<\/p>\n<p>Permanent magnets, which are stronger at operating temperatures, would enable motors and generators to be both physically smaller and more powerful than those using rare earth magnets.&nbsp; However Niron has to achieve economic volume production to make the iron nitride magnet a reality in the market.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.freethink.com\/transportation\/rare-earth-elements-permanent-magnets\">Colin Campbell, Tesla\u2019s VP of powertrain engineering said<\/a>, at a meeting on 1 March 2023, that the forthcoming Tesla $25,000 &#8220;model 2&#8221;&nbsp; mass market BEV will use a permanent magnet drive motor which does not incorporate rare earths.&nbsp; It is not clear whether Tesla will use Niron magnets in volume production, or use either larger, or less powerful, ferrite permanent magnets.<\/p>\n<p>Ferrite permanent magnets are weaker than rare earth magnets, which would make motors and generators larger.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.autoblog.com\/2023\/03\/20\/rare-earth-metals-ev-electric-motors\/\">Adamas Intelligence, a research firm, is suggesting in a note<\/a> that the new Tesla drive chain will include a ferrite permanent magnet motor.&nbsp; The note also includes more information on Niron and General Motors.<\/p>\n<p>Jordan Giesige&#8217;s in depth podcast&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=DdEjfy4xti4\" target=\"_blank\">&#8220;The limiting factor&#8221;<\/a>&nbsp;also concludes that Tesla is most likely planning to use a ferrite permanent magnet motor in the &#8220;model 2&#8221; mass market BEV, as the second phase Niron technology is unlikely to be available on the timescale required by Tesla.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8b7738a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8b7738a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Summary<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a8bf42e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a8bf42e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Shortages of the materials above will not be a show stopper for completing a transition to 100% BEVs road vehicle sales by the early 2030s.\u00a0<\/p><p>A lot of the other materials used in BEVs are common to fossil fuel vehicles too, and are expected to continue to be available.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-55d36e0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"55d36e0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"ai-self-driving\">AI self driving<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5e3a710 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5e3a710\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A number of companies are working on self driving BEVs using AI techniques.\u00a0 The defined levels of self driving are given in the chart below.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8a68432 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"8a68432\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"651\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/SAE_DrivingAutomation_j3016graphic_2021-1024x833.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-6867\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/SAE_DrivingAutomation_j3016graphic_2021-1024x833.png 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/SAE_DrivingAutomation_j3016graphic_2021-300x244.png 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/SAE_DrivingAutomation_j3016graphic_2021-768x625.png 768w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/SAE_DrivingAutomation_j3016graphic_2021-1536x1250.png 1536w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/SAE_DrivingAutomation_j3016graphic_2021-2048x1666.png 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-69d83f6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"69d83f6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>So far, there are a number of level 2 self-driving systems approved in various countries or US states.<\/p><p>The approved level 3 systems include:-<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.caranddriver.com\/news\/a35729591\/honda-legend-level-3-autonomy-leases-japan\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Honda Sensing Elite<\/a>, approved in Japan March 2021 for 100 vehicles only<\/li><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engadget.com\/mercedes-first-certified-level-3-autonomy-car-company-us-201021118.html?guccounter=1&amp;guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&amp;guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMym8Mox55FnMRBtCb_99D_YhMrxgYK7sXL_JevPtZELt08eUuvqUQLJgyMh3yr4HYqIVShXJOG8lmb1KBOahoNPYNqHXavFn-R8ZHYFA7vDWO-gd-bhztFqsc2N6xTiMCjcKhetG3xsXIgJw39fMWhf4FdjRgFwz5R9bjYgK3mQ#:~:text=Mercedes%20is%20the%20first%20certified,company%20in%20the%20US%20%7C%20Engadget\">Mercedes Drive Pilot<\/a>, approved in Germany June 2022, Nevada\u00a0 January 2023, California June 2023.<\/li><\/ul><div>Waymo operates\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waymo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">level 4 autonomous vehicles<\/a>, usually driverless, Phoenix, AZ, USA (since November 2019),\u00a0 San Francisco, CA, USA (November 2022) and Los Angeles, CA, USA (soon).\u00a0 Waymo&#8217;s technology requires detailed road mapping of areas in which autonomous vehicles will operate, and can be thrown if there are changes in the road infrastructure which are not in the maps.\u00a0\u00a0<\/div><div>\u00a0<\/div><div>There are other level 4 autonomous vehicles approved for local use.\u00a0 At present, these have significant restrictions in geographic coverage.<\/div><div>\u00a0<\/div><div>If and when level 5 self-driving vehicles become commonplace, robotaxi rides with no taxi cab drivers required would become significantly less expensive than current taxis with drivers.\u00a0 Far more people might then choose not to own a car, as robotaxis could be summoned rapidly.\u00a0 Annual vehicle sales might reduce very considerably.<\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8d1688d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8d1688d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"bev-sales\">BEV sales<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-579d95d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"579d95d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">2022 sales by group<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-55fc8a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"55fc8a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The top two BEV best selling brands are straightforward and well out in front, but after that the order and sales volume start to depend on how you account for joint ventures such as SAIC.\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/insideevs.com\/news\/656927\/global-electric-car-sales-2022-guide\/#:~:text=In%202022%2C%2023%25%20of%20new,%2C%20and%20Volkswagen%20(7.5%25).\">Insideevs<\/a> shows it as:-<\/p><ul><li>1,314,330 Tesla<\/li><li>913,052 BYD<\/li><li>671,725 SAIC<\/li><li>571,067 VW Group<\/li><li>383,936 Geely-Volvo<\/li><\/ul><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAIC_Motor\">SAIC<\/a> consists of a few wholly owned brands, but also joint ventures such as SAIC-Volkswagen (Volkswagen, Skoda, Audi) and SAIC-General Motors (Buick, Chevrolet, Cadillac).<\/p><p>Further brand groups, ordered by BEV+PHEV sales, can be found at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ev-volumes.com\/\">EV Volumes<\/a>, where BEV sales can be separately identified.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d17b09 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"2d17b09\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">2021 EV sales by country<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f37b04c elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"f37b04c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"363\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ICCT_2021_EvSalesByYearByCountry-1024x465.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-7622\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ICCT_2021_EvSalesByYearByCountry-1024x465.png 1024w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ICCT_2021_EvSalesByYearByCountry-300x136.png 300w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ICCT_2021_EvSalesByYearByCountry-768x349.png 768w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ICCT_2021_EvSalesByYearByCountry-1536x698.png 1536w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/ICCT_2021_EvSalesByYearByCountry.png 2000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6bf4d68 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"6bf4d68\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>See the chart above from the ICCT\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/theicct.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/global-ev-update-2021-jun22.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2021 [p3 fig 2]<\/a>.\u00a0\u00a0Note that the chart above includes both BEV and PHEV sales.<\/p><p>There is a clear lag of a few years in per capita US EV sales vs China and the EU\/Europe.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ee04c36 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ee04c36\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"future-bev-demand\">Future BEV demand<\/a><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c30e0cf elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"c30e0cf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"bev-transition-curve\">BEV transition curve<\/a><\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-81f6582 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"81f6582\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Technology adoption follows an S shaped transition curve.\u00a0<\/p><p>Recent technology transitions have generally taken a decade or less, while older transitions took longer.<\/p><p><iframe style=\"border: 2px solid black; height: 500px; width: 700px;\" src=\"https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/grapher\/technology-adoption-by-households-in-the-united-states?country=Automobile+Colour%20TV+Computer+Dishwasher+Electric%20power+Household%20refrigerator+Landline+Microwave+Radio+Smartphone%20usage+Social%20media%20usage+Tablet+Vacuum+Washer+Refrigerator+Cellular%20phone+Television+Internet+Videocassette%20recorder+Washing%20machine+Water%20Heater+Cable%20TV\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/p><p>If you fit the parameters of a typical S shaped curve to recent years of BEV sales growth (the short black line on the chart) up to the end of 2022, you get the blue &#8220;%BEV sales&#8221; curve on the chart below.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-74d182c elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"74d182c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"666\" height=\"415\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/BEVsRoadTransportOilByYear.jpg\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-6773\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/BEVsRoadTransportOilByYear.jpg 666w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/BEVsRoadTransportOilByYear-300x187.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 666px) 100vw, 666px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-90fba48 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"90fba48\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The chart above is based on <a href=\"\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/OilForRoadTransportCalculations_public.xlsx\">this 2023 spreadsheet<\/a>.<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\ \\\\<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The blue curve on the chart above implies that BEV sales will be 85% of light vehicle sales by 2030. However, the typical 16 year life time of fossil fuel vehicles means that it will be into the 2040s before fewer than 10% of light road vehicles are fossil fueled (see green line on the chart above).&nbsp; When addressing climate change, this lag means it is critical that the transition to 100% BEV sales completes as soon as possible.<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\ \\\\<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The implication of such a BEV sales transition is that oil demand for road transport (red line on the chart above) is likely to peak around 2025, and by 2030 would likely reduce by 6% per year straight line.<span class=\"katex-eq\" data-katex-display=\"false\">\\\\ \\\\<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The RMI (Rocky Mountain Institute) has now produced a <a href=\"https:\/\/rmi.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/dlm_uploads\/2023\/09\/x_change_cars_report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">September 2023 X-change report<\/a> &#8220;Cars &#8211; the end of the ICE age&#8221; which adopts a similar approach to my spreadsheet above, but is much more thorough.&nbsp; It covers both BEV and PHEV sales, analyses the S curve calculations in the major vehicle markets, and discusses the use of different types of S curves.&nbsp; Its conclusion is that 2030 global plug in EVs are likely to be between 62% and 86% of l<span style=\"color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-family: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-text-font-weight ); word-spacing: var( --e-global-typography-text-word-spacing );\">ight vehicle sales.&nbsp; It is recommended, particularly for the discussion.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e5b8894 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e5b8894\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"bev-vs-phev-sales-transition\">BEV vs PHEV sales transition<\/a><\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1aaccaf elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"1aaccaf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Norway will ban sales of new fossil fuel vehicles from 2025.\u00a0 Thus, it has the most advanced BEV sales transition worldwide, with BEVs representing over 80% of new vehicle sales in Q2 2023.\u00a0 The Norwegian light vehicle sales figures suggest PHEV sales will be squeezed out as total EV (= BEV + PHEV) sales approach 100%.<\/p><p>Norway&#8217;s vehicle sales over time are in <a href=\"http:\/\/cleantechnica.com\/files\/2023\/05\/Norway-Monthly-Powertrain-Market-Share3.png\">this chart<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/insideevs.com\/news\/656927\/global-electric-car-sales-2022-guide\/\">Insideevs &#8220;Guide To Global EV Sales In 2022&#8221;<\/a> article.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a2acc16 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a2acc16\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a name=\"lower-analyst-forecasts\">Lower analyst forecasts<\/a><\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c8d68b1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c8d68b1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Note that the chart above is for BEVs only, while the BNEF forecasts below are for BEVs+PHEVs.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f948793 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"f948793\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"482\" height=\"290\" src=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/BnefBevPhevSalesByYearByForecastYear.jpg\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-6774\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/BnefBevPhevSalesByYearByForecastYear.jpg 482w, https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/BnefBevPhevSalesByYearByForecastYear-300x180.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 482px) 100vw, 482px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-31b5e79 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"31b5e79\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>BNEF (Bloomberg New Energy Finance) generally has the most aggressive forecasts for green technology adoption among the commercial research and analysis firms.\u00a0 However, as can be seen from the chart above, BNEF has had to uplift its EV sales projections very considerably over the last seven years.\u00a0<\/p><p>There is a good chance the BNEF process of gradually uplifting forecasts is not yet complete.\u00a0 In particular, you would expect EV sales penetration to approach 100% BEV sales in a reasonable period, while the BNEF 2023 forecasts for 2040 appear to approach just over 80% instead, in a much more lengthy period.<\/p><p>A 2019 <a href=\"https:\/\/cleantechnica.com\/2019\/05\/19\/bnefs-latest-embarrassingly-lowball-ev-outlook\/\">CleanTechnica<\/a> article explains why BNEF EV transition projections was even then seen as ultra conservative.\u00a0 Suffice it to say that a lot of analyst estimates still assume that today&#8217;s constraints will apply to the production of EV batteries in the future, which is then assumed to constrain EV production and sales.<\/p><p>From the <a href=\"#materials\">Materials<\/a> section above, sodium ion battery production will likely eliminate gaps in battery availability to support growing EV demand.\u00a0 Thus material substitutions would allow the EV market to be driven primarily by demand, and not by materials in short supply.\u00a0 Doubtless there will be one or two speed bumps along the way (such as automotive chips in 2022).\u00a0 But materials restrictions, and other supplies restrictions, are expected to occur only temporarily.<\/p><p>Thanks to battery price reductions and BEV production efficiency improvements, BEVs sticker prices will almost certainly be lower than those of comparable fossil fuel cars by 2026.\u00a0 Why would anyone then spend more money to buy a new, higher-cost, fossil fuel car instead of a new BEV?<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-inner-column elementor-element elementor-element-96df8e1\" data-id=\"96df8e1\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-abfb202 elementor-hidden-tablet elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"abfb202\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:&quot;H1&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;No headings were found on this page.&quot;,&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;,&quot;h4&quot;,&quot;h5&quot;,&quot;h6&quot;],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;numbers&quot;,&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tTable of Contents\t\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__abfb202\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-chevron-down\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__abfb202\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-chevron-up\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__abfb202\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<i class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3984f92 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"3984f92\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Useful additional links<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e843792 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e843792\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.carbonbrief.org\/factcheck-how-electric-vehicles-help-to-tackle-climate-change\/\">Carbon Brief: 2019 Factcheck: How electric vehicles help to tackle climate change<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nextbigfuture.com\/2022\/12\/catl-will-mix-cheaper-sodium-ion-batteries-with-lithium-for-acceptable-range-evs.html\">CATL will Mix Cheaper Sodium Ion Batteries With Lithium for Acceptable Range EVs<\/a><\/li><\/ul><ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.autoevolution.com\/news\/tesla-model-3-with-catl-s-m3p-battery-to-launch-in-china-offers-better-range-lower-price-196585.html\">CATL M3P battery cell now in volume production<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/1061865\/public-ev-charging-infrastructure-research-report.pdf\">UK government Department of Transport research report February 2022: Public Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Tesla model Y 2022 best selling BEV (right), Tesla model 3 (left). Photo by Wikipedia user Smnt. CC-BY-SA-4.0 battery electric vehicles BEVs (battery electric vehicles) Table of Contents General Here are the definitions of some common acronyms used in electric vehicles articles:- BEV (battery electric vehicle):A pure battery electric vehicle with no other sources of [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-5833","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/5833","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=5833"}],"version-history":[{"count":1376,"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/5833\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9076,"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/5833\/revisions\/9076"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/greenenergytransition.info\/wp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5833"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}